MODELING CONTRACT FORM: AN EXAMINATION OF CASH SETTLED FUTURES

This research presents an intuitive interpretation and expression for pricing cash settled futures contracts. In particular, the choice of the averaging period for the underlying cash index is evaluated. For example, the averaging period for the Lean Hog futures contract is two days, whereas it is thirty days for the F ed funds contract. Does the choice of the averaging period make a difference? Under certain assumptions, the behavior of the futures price prior to entering the expiration or averaging interval is independent of the length of the interval for storable commodities, but it is not for non-storable commodities.Marketing,

Is the Local Basis Really Local?

Conventional wisdom suggests the local cash - futures basis is determined from local supply and demand conditions. However, it may be the case that local elevators look to other locations, such as terminal locations, and adjust for transportation differentials when determining the basis for their particular market. If so, certain grain marketing locations (e.g., export and interior terminal locations) may play an important role in discovering and ultimately determining the basis for other local markets. This hypothesis is examined for the #2 yellow corn basis at various export terminal (Gulf; Toledo), river terminal (Illinois River; Omaha) and interior (S. Central Illinois; N. Central Iowa; Denver) locations. Specifically, if the basis calculated at one market location is found to lead the basis at another market location, then this suggests that the leading market plays a role in determining the basis for the other market. The findings suggest that corn basis calculated at the export terminal markets of Toledo and the U.S. Gulf, as well as the Illinois River, may indeed provide valuable information in determining the basis for other river terminal and interior locations.Marketing,

MINIMUM VARIANCE HEDGING AND THE ENCOMPASSING PRINCIPLE: ASSESSING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF FUTURES HEDGES

An empirical methodology is developed for statistically testing the hedging effectiveness among competing futures contracts. The presented methodology is based on the encompassing principle, widely used in the forecasting literature, and applied here to minimum variance hedging regressions. Intuitively, the test is based on an alternative futures contract's ability to reduce residual basis risk by offering either diversification or a smaller absolute level of basis risk than a preferred futures contract. The methodology is also easily extended to cases involving multiple hedging instruments and general hedge ratio models. The methodology is demonstrated by evaluating the hedging effectiveness of Chicago Board of Trade's (CBOT) corn futures versus the Minneapolis Grain Exchange's National Corn Index (NCI) futures. The results indicate that the NCI futures encompass the CBOT futures for hedging country-level corn price risk in North Central Iowa; but, the NCI and CBOT futures are complementary in hedging terminal-level corn price risk at the U.S. Gulf.encompassing, hedging effectiveness, corn futures, Agribusiness,

THE INFORMATION CONTENT OF IMPLIED VOLATILITY FROM OPTIONS ON AGRICULTURAL FUTURES CONTRACTS

Agricultural risk managers need forecasts of price volatility that are accurate and meaningful. This is especially true given the greater emphasis on firm level risk measurement and management (e.g., Value-at-Risk and Enterprise Risk Management). Implied volatility is known to provide a readily available, market based forecast of volatility. Because of this, it is often considered to be the "best" available (e.g., optimal) volatility forecast. However, many studies have provided evidence contrary to this claim for many markets (Figlewski). This research examines the forecasting performance of implied volatility derived from the Black-1976 option pricing model in predicting 1-week volatility of nearby live cattle futures prices. Unlike many studies of implied volatility, this research takes a practical approach to evaluating implied volatility, namely from the perspective of an agribusiness risk manager who uses implied volatility in risk management applications, and thus needs to understand its forecasting performance. This research also uses a methodology that avoids overlapping forecast horizons. As well, the methodology focuses on forecast errors that can reduce interpretive issues that can arise from traditional forecast evaluation procedures. Results suggest that implied volatility derived from nearby options contracts on live cattle futures is a biased and inefficient forecast of 1-week nearby futures price volatility, but encompasses all information provided by a time series forecast (i.e., GARCH). As well, our results suggest that implied volatility has improved as a forecast of 1-week volatility over time. These results provide practical information to risk managers on the bias, efficiency, and information content of implied volatility from live cattle options markets, and provide practical suggestions on how to adjust the bias and inefficiency that is found in this forecasting framework.Marketing,

Multiple Horizons and Information in USDA Production Forecasts

USDA livestock production forecasts are evaluated for information across multiple horizons using the direct test developed by Vuchelen and Gutierrez. Forecasts are explicitly tested for rationality (unbiased and efficient) as well as for incremental information out to three quarters ahead. The results suggest that although the forecasts are often not rational, they typically do provide the forecast user with unique information at each horizon. Turkey and milk production forecasts tended to provide the most consistent performance, while beef production forecasts provided little information beyond the two quarter horizon.Livestock Production/Industries,

Comparing Hedging Effectiveness: An Application of the Encompassing Principle

An empirical methodology is developed for statistically testing the hedging effectiveness among competing futures contracts. The presented methodology is based on the encompassing principle, widely used in the forecasting literature, and applied here to minimum variance hedging regressions. Intuitively, the test is based on an alternative futures contract's ability to reduce residual basis risk by offering either diversification or a smaller absolute level of basis risk than a preferred futures contract. The methodology is easily extended to cases involving multiple hedging instruments and general hedge ratio models. Empirical applications suggest that the encompassing methodology can provide information beyond traditional approaches of comparing hedging effectiveness.cross-hedging, encompassing, hedging effectiveness, Research Methods/ Statistical Methods,

Price Discovery in Private Cash Forward Markets - The Case of Lumber

Cash forward contracting is a common, and often preferred, means of managing price risk for agribusinesses. Despite this, little is known about the performance of cash forward markets, in particular the role they play in price discovery. The lumber market provides a unique case for examining this issue. The Bloch Lumber Company maintains an active cash forward market for many lumber products, and publishes benchmark forward prices on their website and disseminates these prices to data vendors. Focusing on 2x4 random lengths lumber and 7/16 oriented strand board, this research examines the lead-lag relationships between the three-month forward prices published by Bloch Lumber and representative spot prices. Results suggest that at least for 2x4 random lengths lumber, the forward prices published by Bloch Lumber lead the spot price. However, spot prices do not lead the forward prices for 2x4 random lengths lumber, but do for oriented strand board. While these results suggest that the Bloch Lumber forward cash prices are contributing to price discovery, the dominant market for price discovery may be an existing spot or futures market.Marketing,

Contribution to Price Discovery in the Forest Product Market: Futures, Forwards, and Spot Markets

This research examines the lead-lag relationships between futures prices, prices from a cash forward market, and spot prices for two forest product markets. Results suggest that for 2x4 lumber, the forward market provides some level of price discovery, but futures play a dominant price discovery role for oriented strand board.Marketing,

RE-CONSIDERING THE NECESSARY CONDITION FOR FUTURES MARKET EFFICIENCY: AN APPLICATION TO DAIRY FUTURES

The traditional necessary condition for futures market inefficiency is the existence of alternative forecasting methods that produce mean squared forecast errors smaller than the futures market. Here, a more exacting requirement for futures market efficiency is proposed-forecast encompassing. Using the procedure of Harvey and Newbold, multiple forecast encompassing is tested with the CME fluid milk futures contract. Time series models and experts at the USDA provide the competing forecasts. The results suggest that the CME fluid milk futures do not encompass the information contained in the USDA forecasts at a two-quarter forecast horizon.Marketing,

FORECAST ENCOMPASSING AND FUTURES MARKET EFFICIENCY: THE CASE OF MILK FUTURES

The traditional necessary condition for futures market inefficiency is the existence of alternative forecasting methods that produce mean squared forecast errors smaller than the futures market. Here, a more exacting requirement for futures market efficiency is proposedforecast encompassing. Using the multiple forecast encompassing procedure of Harvey and Newbold, forecast encompassing is tested with the CME fluid milk futures contract. Time series models and experts at the USDA provide the competing forecasts. The results suggest that the CME fluid milk futures do not encompass the information contained in the USDA forecasts at a two-quarter forecast horizon. While the competing forecasts generate positive revenues, it is unlikely that trading returns would exceed transaction costs in this relatively new futures market.Marketing,